From Traditional Materials to Geopolymers: History, Performance, Sustainability and 3D Printing Applications

Traditional construction materials, such as gypsum, lime, cement, and concrete, have played a central role in the construction sector. On the other hand, recent sustainability requirements make some of these materials less appealing (e.g. cements). Indeed, the construction industry is responsible for 37% of global CO₂ emissions, with 28% originating from building operations and 11% from the embodied carbon in materials and processes. The transition toward low-carbon construction is crucial for reducing its environmental impact. In response to these challenges, the emergence of geopolymers – materials derived from the alkali activation of aluminosilicates – has become a promising ecological alternative to traditional construction materials. This study aims to achieve two main objectives: (1) provide a critical review of both traditional and innovative construction materials, analysing their historical evolution, production cycle stages, mechanical, physical, and thermal properties, as well as aspects related to sustainability and printability; (2) examine the potential applications of these materials in emerging technologies, with a particular focus on 3D printing for construction, to promote more efficient and environmentally sustainable building solutions. The systematic literature review was conducted using an integrated approach, combining qualitative analysis with bibliometric investigation to ensure a comprehensive and rigorous assessment of the state of the art in construction materials research. This study highlights key limitations, including the lack of a comprehensive overview of geopolymer matrix properties, particularly regarding durability, structural compatibility, and the standardization of 3D printing processes.